- Industria: Economy; Printing & publishing
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基于信任的移动钱古代制度。它早于西方银行的做法。虽然现在更多与中东、 相关联的一个版本是哈瓦拉在中国在唐朝 (618-907)，第二个一半称为飞钱或飞钱存在。在哈瓦拉，没有钱身体之间移动位置 ；如今它是经销商在不同国家之间转移通过电话或传真。涉及的没有法律合同，和收件人给定仅代码编号或简单的令牌，如低值钞票撕成两半，要证明钱是适当。随着时间的推移方向相反的交易相互抵消，因此物理运动最小化。信任是经销商有的唯一资本。与它，哈瓦拉的用户具有一种全世界的钱-传输服务，廉价、 快速、 免费的官僚机构。从政府的角度来看，然而，非正式钱网络威胁，因为他们谎言以外的官方渠道，规管及征税。他们担心他们使用的罪犯，包括恐怖分子。虽然这是很可能真的，到目前为止哈瓦拉网络的主要用户是海外工人，他们不信任官方资金转移方法或买不起，向其家庭汇款收入。
Industry:Economy
你可以信任的钱。硬货币预计将保留其值，或甚至从对软货币升值中受益。这使它成为一个受欢迎的选择人们参与国际交易。美元、 德国马克、 英镑和瑞士法郎成为了硬货币，如果只有部分的时间，在 20 世纪期间。
Industry:Economy
什么经济活动是所有有关，但如何能将其发生吗？经济学家有很多的理论，但他们都没有所有的答案。亚当 · 斯密归因于生长到看不见的手，大多数信徒的古典经济学的共同看法。新古典经济学有不同的增长，在 1950 年代期间由罗伯特 · 索洛设计理论。这主张投资持续的增加只是暂时增加经济增长速度： 资本对劳动的比率就会上升，资本下降的边际产品和经济长期的增长路径移回。输出然后将作为劳动力 （质量调整的在以后的版本） 加上系数，以反映改进生产率的增长同样的速度增加。这种理论预测一些基本的经济统计之间的具体关系。不过这些预言的一些不符合事实。例如，国家之间的收入差距是大于其储蓄率的差异会建议的。此外，虽然模型说经济增长最终取决于技术变革的速度，它不能解释什么确切地确定这种速度。技术变革被对待作为外源。一些经济学家认为这样做将忽略增长的主要引擎。他们开发了一种新的生长理论，其中生产力的改善是内源性的也就是说这些事情发生在正在使用并不只是假定的经济模型内发生，在新古典模型的结果。内生增长是由于，特别是技术创新和人力资本的投资。在寻找的增长率，包括富裕国家和发展中国家，之间的差异的解释新增长理论集中激励经济创建额外的人力资本，并发明新产品中都是。确定这些激励措施的因素包括： 政府的政策。与广泛的免费市场政策，特别是自由贸易和安全财产的权利，维护国家通常具有较高的增长率。开放的经济体系比封闭的经济平均增长速度更快。更高的公共开支与国民生产总值是通常与经济增长放缓。也对增长不利的是高通胀和政治不稳定。随着国家在 20 世纪每年的增长率由于递减的资本回报率下降期间变得富裕起来。到 1990 年，最发达的国家估计将有长期趋势增长率 2-2。每年的 5%。然而，1990 年代，成长率开始上升，尤其是在美国。一些经济学家说这是诞生的新经济革命的生产力，但也主要是由于快速的技术创新基于 (也许直接源于新技术的传播) 的人力资本价值的增加的结果。
Industry:Economy
A measure of economic activity in a country. It is calculated by adding the total value of a country's annual output of goods and services. GDP = private consumption + investment + public spending + the change in inventories + (exports - imports). It is usually valued at market prices; by subtracting indirect tax and adding any government subsidy, however, GDP can be calculated at factor cost. This measure more accurately reveals the income paid to factors of production. Adding income earned by domestic residents from their investments abroad, and subtracting income paid from the country to investors abroad, gives the country's gross national product (GNP). The effect of inflation can be eliminated by measuring GDP growth in constant real prices. However, some economists argue that hitting a nominal GDP target should be the main goal of macroeconomic policy. This is because it would remind policymakers to take into account the effect of their decisions on inflation, as well as on growth. GDP can be calculated in three ways. The income method adds the income of residents (individuals and firms) derived from the production of goods and services. The output method adds the value of output from the different sectors of the economy. The expenditure method totals spending on goods and services produced by residents, before allowing for depreciation and capital consumption. As one person's output is another person's income, which in turn becomes expenditure, these three measures ought to be identical. They rarely are because of statistical imperfections. Furthermore, the output and income measures exclude unreported economic activity that takes place in the black economy but that may be captured by the expenditure measure. GDP is disliked as an objective of economic policy by some because it is not a perfect measure of welfare. It does not include aspects of the good life such as some leisure activities. Nor does it include economically valuable activities that are not paid for, such as parents teaching their children to read. But it does include some things that lower the quality of life, such as activities that damage the environment.
Industry:Economy
There are few more hotly debated topics in economics than what role the state should play in the economy. Plenty of economists provided intellectual support for state intervention during the era of big government, particularly from the 1930s to the 1980s. Keynesians argued that the state should manage the amount of demand in the economy to maintain full employment. Others advocated a command economy, in which the government would decide price levels, oversee the allocation of scarce resources and run the most important parts of the economy (the "commanding heights") or, in communist countries, the entire economy. The role of the state increased at the expense of market forces. Economists provided plenty of examples of market failure that seemed to justify this. Since the 1950s, there has been growing evidence that government intervention can also be flawed, and can often impose even greater costs on an economy than market failure. One reason is that when a government acts, it usually does so as a monopoly, with all the attendant economic inefficiencies this implies. In practice, policies of Keynesian demand management often resulted in inflation, and thus lost much of their credibility. There was growing concern that public investment was crowding out superior private investment, and that other public spending on things such as health care, education and pensions was similarly discouraging private provision. Government management of commercial enterprises was often seen to be inefficient and, starting in the 1980s, nationalization gave way to privatization. Even when the state was not directly responsible for economic activity, but instead set the rules governing private behavior, there was evidence of regulatory failure. High rates of taxation started to discourage people and companies from undertaking economic activities that would, without the tax, have been profitable; wealth creation suffered. Most economists agree that there is a need for some government role in the economy. A market economy can function only if there is an adequate legal system, and, in particular, clearly defined, enforceable property rights. The legal system is probably an example of what economists call a public good (although the existence in many countries and industries of some self-regulation shows it is not always so). Although politicians in many countries spent most of the period since 1980 talking about the need to reduce the role of the state in the economy, and in many cases introduced policies of privatization, deregulation and liberalization to help this happen, public spending has continued to increase as a share of GDP. Within the OECD, public spending accounted for a larger slice of GDP in 2002 than in 1990, which was in turn higher than in 1980. Indeed, it has risen during every decade since the start of the 20th century. One reason was that governments had to honor spending commitments on pensions and health care made by previous generations of politicians.
Industry:Economy
在经济周期中，政府应借只投资而不是融资目前的支出。此规则当然是审慎的财政政策，规定，各国政府都在描述支出作为投资，投资于适当的事情，他们这样做有效地和他们是小心，以避免挤占了高级私人投资诚实。但也有其他的财政政策选项，可能会使尽可能多的感觉。例如，请参阅平衡的预算。
Industry:Economy
在其中一个国家支持其货币储备的黄金，并允许货币持有者交换他们的纸币及硬币为黄金的货币体系。多年来在 1914 年以前大多数的世界主要货币有其汇率由黄金标准确定的。从第一次世界大战造成的经济混乱导致的战斗人员放弃该链接到黄金。(与他人) 英国返回到黄金标准 1925 年之前在 1931 年退出它为好。广泛使用的黄金标准结束在 1930年-33 由于全球经济萧条期间和大削减国际贷款。美国在 1933 年放弃金本位和部分返回到它在 1934 年。在第二次世界大战后有限的形式的黄金标准继续，但只有直接应用于美元 ；其他主要货币有其根据布雷顿森林安排固定到美元的汇率。美元是最后切松从黄金标准在 1971 年。
Industry:Economy
